In pedagogical literature, the history of preschool pedagogy has been traced by some authors since antiquity. However, throughout the centuries-old history of pedagogical thought, the originality of preschool childhood has not actually stood out. The arguments of most ancient thinkers about education were mostly of a general nature, and their comments on the early stages of age development are presented only in separate indirect statements. This was due to the concept of childhood that prevailed in the public and scientific consciousness, which was not distinguished at all as a kind of stage in human development. Consideration of the child from the point of view of his imperfection, lagging behind the adult in all physical and psychological parameters gave rise to a general orientation of pedagogical thought towards overcoming this lagging behind. The goal of education and upbringing was to achieve the “imperfect adult”, which was considered a child, the level of a normally developed adult. Features of age-related psychophysical development were regarded mainly as obstacles to achieving this goal.

In the history of human development, the objective identification of preschool childhood as a specific stage in the formation of a personality has a socially conditioned character. According to D.B. Elkonin, preschool childhood appears only at a certain stage in the development of society, which makes high demands on the formation of personality. Throughout centuries of history, the inclusion of a child in the world of adults, in the process of material production, was carried out gradually from the earliest years and was almost exclusively determined by the maturation of the organism and the parallel assimilation of elementary labor skills. The material and spiritual progress of society has necessitated a long gradual entry of the child into the world of adults and the isolation in this process of specific age periods. In pedagogy, this manifested itself in the design of the concepts of childhood as a qualitatively unique age stage.

The position on the decisive role of pedagogical influence on the developing personality of the child was most fully formed in the works Ya.A. Kamensky , who formulated goals, objectives and developed the content of education and upbringing for the period from birth to adolescence, including during preschool childhood. The book "The Mother's School" (1632) and the corresponding section of the "Great Didactics" were the initial stage in the formation of preschool pedagogy. Comenius believed that the basis for the development of speech and the qualities of the mind of a small child should be "play or entertainment." He wrote for children the book "The World of Sensible Things in Pictures" (1658), which should "encourage young minds to look for something entertaining in it and facilitate the assimilation of the alphabet."

During the Enlightenment, humanistic tendencies were developed by John Locke, who opposed the medieval suppression of the individual, drill, and the intimidation of young children. He put forward important psychological and pedagogical provisions on taking into account age characteristics, the mechanism of habit and its role in the formation of character, the development of curiosity and consciousness in children, and showed ways to form morality.

Democratic ideas were important for preschool pedagogy Jean-Jacques Rousseau which contributed to the development of interest and respect for the personality of the child. Rousseau argued that childhood should be considered as something independent in the general process of personality formation and having its own laws of development. He made valuable statements about the sensory education of the child, his physical and moral hardening, giving children the greatest possible independence, and the use of natural factors in the development of feelings and thinking.

In the 2nd floor. 18th century increased attention to the issues of preschool education. I.B. Basedow identified a range of issues of preschool education that require development: the systematic and consistent development of children, the use of didactic games, etc. J.F. oberlin (France) founded (1769) the first institutions for the education of young children, which received the name. "knitting schools", in which games were used, subject visualization was widely used, special attention was paid to the development of speech and moral and religious education.

Promising areas of pedagogy for raising children at preschool age, including the principle of developmental education, organizing the lives of children on the basis of their independence, developed I.G. Pestalozzi . He pointed to the connection between preschool education and school, which he proposed to implement through a special "children's class". Recommending to carefully study the individual characteristics of children, Pestalozzi contributed to the psychologization of the upbringing process, developed didactics and methods of initial education.

In the 30-40s. 19th century a pedagogical system F. Froebel , acquired will exclude, influence in preschool pedagogy in the 2nd floor. 19th – early 20th centuries Froebel's teaching included many progressive ideas: the concept of the child as a developing personality; interpretation of development as an active entry of the child into the world of natural and societies, phenomena; creation of special institutions for the upbringing of children - the "kindergarten", which differed significantly from the various types of "schools for toddlers"; approval of the game as the basis of education in kindergarten; development of didactic materials, methods of speech development, content of classes in kindergarten; creation of an institution for the training of educators. With the activities of Froebel, the allocation of preschool pedagogy to an independent branch of pedagogical science is connected.

For all its popularity, the Froebel system was critically evaluated and revised from the first years of its existence. On its basis, some national systems of preschool education developed, in which such features of the original theory as mysticism, symbolism, pedantry, and canonization of didactic material were denied.

Preschool pedagogy of the late XIX - early XX centuries. under the influence of changing social conditions, success in the development of natural science, was forced to abandon the concept of strict management of education and brought to the fore biologization direction with his position on the spontaneous development of the child's abilities. In accordance with this attitude, the role of the teacher, to a large extent, was reduced to the selection of sets of exercises and the creation of the necessary environment for the self-development and self-education of the child. Ovid Decroly and Maria Montessori applied in preschool institutions improved methods for training the senses, skills, as well as didactic materials created by them when working with retarded children; they focused on the individual style of the child's activity in a preschool institution. The findings and recommendations of these teachers in the field of sensory education have greatly enriched the theory and practice of preschool pedagogy.

In the practice of preschool education has become widespread pragmatist pedagogyJ. Dewey , bringing to the fore the development of applied skills and abilities.

The most important role in the development of preschool pedagogy in Russia was played by the pedagogical system K.D. Ushinsky , the principles of national education developed by him, the formation of the need for work, as well as thoughts about using the enormous possibilities of the native language, the role of the personal influence of the teacher in the upbringing of the child. For preschool pedagogy, Ushinsky's ideas about the peculiarities of the mental development of children, the role of activity and activity at an early age, the need to study children's folk games, the pedagogical significance of fairy tales, etc. are valuable.

From the 60s. 19th century in practical and theoretical activities of E.H. Vodovozova, A.S. Simonovich, E.I. Conradi and other followers of Ushinsky worked out and comprehended the features of the Russian national system of preschool education. Simonovich began to work according to the Froebel method, but subsequently modified it, strengthening the role of Russian folk elements: she introduced a special section “Motherland Studies” into the system of classes, used folk songs and games. She published the first Russian magazine on preschool education "Kindergarten". Vodovozova, from a democratic position, resolved the issue of the goals of education, revealed the content and methods of moral and mental education at an early age, pointed to the leading role of the mother in shaping the personality of the child.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. Froebel societies and courses became the leading institutions that promoted the ideas of public preschool education and trained qualified educators. The propaganda of the scientific foundations of upbringing in the family has intensified. P.F. Kapterev defended the idea of ​​public preschool education, which at that time had many opponents, analyzed the experience of various areas in education. P.F. Lesgaft thoroughly considered the purpose, tasks, content and methods of family education, analyzed the issues of personality formation from a scientific psychological and physiological position, created an original system of physical education. To the theory of free education, the most consistent propagandist of which was K.N. Wentzel , adjoined several directions (M.X. Sventitskaya, L.K. Schleger). She was engaged in the development of her own system of preschool education E.I. Tikheeva (Methodology for the development of children's speech, problems of sensory education and its role in mental development, the creation of a set of didactic materials and games, promotion of the merits of social education and criticism of the theory of free education). During this period, the issues of preschool education were widely discussed on the pages of the pedagogical magazines Vestnik vospitaniya, Upbringing and education, Russian school. "Free Education".

After 1917, the development of domestic preschool pedagogy was characterized for several years by a certain ideological and pedagogical pluralism, when various directions in preschool education simultaneously existed. In the 20s. kindergartens were preserved that worked according to the Froebel system, according to the “Tikheeva method”, as well as others that combined elements of various systems. At the same time, the type of Soviet kindergarten began to take shape. All-Russian congresses on preschool education were held (1919, 1921, 1924, 1928), in which scientists in the field of pedagogy and psychology (P.P. Blonsky, S.T. Shatsky, K.N. Kornilov), pediatrics and hygiene of children took part (E.A. Arkin, V.V. Gorinevsky, G.N. Speransky, L.I. Chulitskaya), art and artistic education (G.I. Roshal, V.N. Shatskaya, E.A. Flerina, M .A. Rumer). During this period, research was launched on the problems of educating young children in preschool institutions (V.M. Bekhterev, N.M. Shchelovanov, H.M. Aksarina, etc.).

An important role in the formation of Soviet preschool pedagogy was played by N.K. Krupskaya. She, together with other teachers (D.A. Lazurkina, M.M. Vilenskaya, R.I. Prushitskaya, A.V. Surovtseva), introduced ideas into the theory and practice of preschool education that stemmed from a peculiar interpretation of the socio-economic provisions of Marxism. This interpretation consisted in the extreme ideologization of the entire process of preschool education, expressed in the dominance of political goals over humanistic ones. N.K. Krupskaya determined the basic principles of building the Soviet system of preschool education, pointing out the need to carry out targeted systematic educational work in the first years of a child’s life according to a specially created and scientifically based program that takes into account the age-related psychophysiological characteristics of children.

The Second Congress on Preschool Education (1921) proclaimed the idea of ​​creating a system of public preschool education on a Marxist basis. Collectivism, materialism, and activism were affirmed as the leading principles of educational work. The need to pay great attention to introducing children to the basics of political literacy, research methods in the study of the world around children was emphasized. Ideological attitudes in the field of preschool pedagogy were characterized by an exaggeration of the role of labor education in preschool age, active anti-religious propaganda, a negative attitude towards a doll, a fairy tale, traditional holidays, and ignoring many provisions of pre-revolutionary pedagogy. In the mid 20s. a rejection of attempts to adapt and use (“Sovietization”) of other pedagogical systems was proclaimed, and by the end of the 20s. kindergartens that followed systems that did not receive the approval of the People's Commissariat of Education were closed.

Changes in the work of preschool institutions inevitably followed changes in school policy. Decrees of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks on the school of 1931-1936. contributed to the reduction of the ideologization of the content and forms of educational work, the rejection of the extremes characteristic of the previous decade. The resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On Pedological Perversions in the System of People's Commissariat of Education” (1936) had ambiguous consequences for the study of child development. Mechanistic approaches to explaining the factors of child development (biological and sociological approaches) and the shortcomings of test measurements were criticized. However, this decision led to the curtailment of a number of areas in the study of childhood.

By the end of the 30s. the main theoretical provisions of Soviet preschool pedagogy were formed, which remained generally recognized until the mid-1980s. The main principles were determined: ideological, systematic and consistent education, its connection with life, taking into account the age-related psychophysiological characteristics of the child, the unity of family and public education. The principle of the leading role of the educator in shaping the personality of the child was affirmed, the need for a clear planning of educational work was emphasized. In 1934, the first kindergarten work program was adopted. N.A. worked on the development of various issues of preschool pedagogy. Vetlugin, A.M. Leushina, R.I. Zhukovskaya, D.V. Mendzheritskaya, F.S. Levin-Schirina, E.I. Radina, A.P. Usova, B.I. Khachapuridze and others. Private methods of preschool pedagogy were developed: speech development - E.I. Tiheeva, F.N. Bleher, E.Yu. Shabad; visual activity - Flerina, A.A. Volkova, K.M. Lepilov, N.A. Sakulina; musical education - T.S. Babajan, N.A. Metlov; natural history - R.M. Basse, A.A. Bystrov, A.M. Stepanova; formation of elementary mathematical representations - E.I. Tiheeva, M.Ya. Morozova, Bleher. At the same time, due to the prevailing socio-political conditions of the country's development, there was a certain alienation of Soviet preschool pedagogy from the world theory and practice of preschool education.

Research on issues of preschool education continued during the Great Patriotic War. The problems of physical education and hardening, child nutrition, protection of the nervous system of children, and patriotic education were studied. During the creation of the APS of the RSFSR (1943), a sector of problems of preschool education was formed. In the post-war period, work in the field of preschool pedagogy developed in research institutes, in the departments of pedagogical institutes. A.P. Usova, together with her colleagues, developed a kindergarten didactics system (1944-1953): a program and methodology for teaching preschoolers were identified, and subsequently systematic education was introduced in kindergarten. In the 2nd floor. 50s experiments were carried out teaching children 6 years old and learning a foreign language in kindergarten.

In 1960, the Scientific Research Institute of Preschool Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Education of the RSFSR was established. Its employees, together with specialists from the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, created a unified program for educating children in preschool institutions, aimed at eliminating disunity in educational work with children of early and preschool age.

The emergence of the Research Institute of Preschool Education contributed to a significant increase in the study of various aspects of preschool childhood. Increased attention to the psychological aspects of the development of preschoolers. The works of A.V. Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonina, L.I. Wenger, H.H. Poddiakova.

In the 2nd floor. 70s Zaporozhets developed the concept of enriching development of the child from the first years of life (developmental amplification). Its implementation requires the search for reserves of the possibilities of the preschooler with the maximum consideration of his age and individual characteristics. The most important areas of research in modern preschool pedagogy are: the formation of visual-figurative thinking as the basis of conceptual thinking, the education of stable moral habits, the development of creative imagination, the widespread use of the game for the purposes of education and training.

Since the mid 80s. a broad social and pedagogical movement arose, which also embraced the system of preschool education. Changing approaches to the goals, content and means of education leads to the emergence of new concepts of preschool education, characterized by a focus on recognizing the inherent value of preschool childhood, on the need to move away from authoritarian methods, on the rejection of ideological extremes in the content of education and training, on creating opportunities for more free natural positions of the participants in the pedagogical process - the child and the educator.

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The history of the formation and development of documentation support for management in Russia

Introduction

The need to create documents arose simultaneously with the advent of writing. Moreover, they believe that it was the need to create various documents (agreements, contracts, etc.) that led to the emergence of writing as a way of presenting information not only of personal, but also of national importance. Already in the 5th century BC, the ancient Roman plebs demanded the introduction of clear "written" laws. The creation of written laws and regulations was also the main demand of medieval uprisings. When the laws appeared, the clerk was required to have absolute accuracy of wording and impeccable knowledge of the form of presentation, otherwise the document would lose its force.

With the development of writing, documents have become a way of communicating and transmitting information.

“The creation of ministries led to the emergence of a huge paperwork. Reports, reports, circulars and orders have now become one of the main means of management. As a result, the staff of officials grew. An invisible but rather powerful power of the office and bureaucracy arose, characteristic of the history of the 19th century.

The relevance of these words from the monograph “Russian History. From Catherine the Great to Alexander II ”(authors I. Zaichkin and I. Pochkaev) is obvious and characteristic of the history of office work in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The new forms, organization and tasks of the central organs of state administration were enshrined in a manifesto on September 8, 1802, by which the colleges were transformed into ministries.

V. Klyuchevsky wrote in the “Course of Russian History”: “Former collegiums are subordinate to the ministries as their departments; the main difference between the new central government bodies was their sole power: each department was controlled by a minister instead of the former collegiate presence.

19th century characterized by an abundance of new types of state documents. Many of the old documents have been given new titles.

Thus, legislative and administrative acts of state authorities began to be formalized by decrees, instructions, regulations, protocols, etc.

The number of forms of “correspondence” has increased: letters, reports, news, demands, reports, petitions, etc. Much attention was paid to the unification of documents, i.e., instructions were prepared, outlining the points on drawing up documents in a certain form. For a number of documents, such as diplomas, patents, etc., general layout keys were created, according to which they were to be drawn up.

At the end of the 19th century, as we now call them, “technical means” began to arrive from abroad in Russia: typewriters, duplicating machines (hectographs, glass cutters, shapirographs), shorthand was developed.

Varadinov N.V., Gastev A.K., Kerzhentsev P.M., Bogdanov A.A., Vitke N.A., Byzov L.A., Drezen E.K., Burdyansky I.M., Rozmirovich E.F. and etc.

The problem of our work is office work in Russia in the XIX - XX centuries.

The purpose of our course work: to analyze the methodological and theoretical literature on the research problem, to identify the main features of the rationalization of office work in Russia in the XIX - XX centuries.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

1. Analyze the methodological and theoretical literature on the research problem.

2. Identify the main stages in the development of office work in Russia.

3. To identify the characteristic features of the rationalization of office work in Russia in the XIX - XX centuries.

1. Formation of documentation support for management in Russia

office work document flow ministerial

1.1 The emergence of office work in Russia

The name "office work" has been preserved from pre-revolutionary Russia. The history of state institutions in tsarist Russia shows how the state apparatus grew step by step, the bureaucracy, the bureaucracy, which played an important role in the life of the state, multiplied.

In the work of officials of pre-revolutionary Russia, writing documents, as they said then, and papers, and working with them occupied the main place. Possessing enormous power, officials used "paper" as a tool to strengthen the state of landowners and capitalists. The tsarist bureaucracy was one of the pillars of the autocracy, being the main state machine of government. Office work in the institutions of tsarist Russia was extremely bureaucratic. Bureaucracy and red tape reigned in institutions. Bribery flourished among officials. Often cases have been pending for years.

The concept and the word "office work" arose in the central institutions of the Moscow state - orders - several centuries ago (XV - XVI centuries). At that time, office work was understood as writing, consideration and resolution of issues (“cases”) in an order. Each case began with a petition to the order (in the 18th - 19th and early 20th centuries - a petition). It was accompanied by various certificates, investigative documents, the decision of the order and other materials. Everyone made up the "case" for this "proceeding", in other words - its "clerical work". The set of cases was also called office work.

In the eighteenth century the rules for conducting office work are reflected in detail in the legislation. These rules were formulated in particular detail in the General Regulations (1720). The instructions of the General Regulations of the tsarist bureaucracy were revered as an immutable law. To a large extent, he retained his strength until the fall of tsarism.

But both the General Regulations and subsequent legislation of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. clerical work was understood mainly as the procedure for the written registration of the proceedings, as well as correspondence.

Office work, as a system for documenting the most diverse aspects of the activities of state institutions, developed in several directions and was represented by several documentation systems.

So, already in the orders, the system of documenting administrative activities, or administrative office work, is clearly distinguished. Managerial, administrative activities take place in every institution - large, small, central and local. Without the administration, which directs the work of the institution, it cannot function. Because of this, administrative proceedings were the most common. Almost in parallel with administrative office work, the system of documenting accounting developed as an independent system, first accounting, and then statistical. Separate documentation systems have emerged in the field of military, judicial and diplomatic activities. All these documenting systems are called special.

The development of special documentation systems further intensified even more. Thus, commercial (“business”) correspondence acquired great importance in tsarist Russia. It is widespread in commercial, industrial enterprises and partially penetrated into government institutions.

1.2 Mandatory office work

At the end of the XV century. the first orders appear - the central bodies of state power in charge of certain branches of princely government, and order huts - local government bodies. The issuance of orders made it possible to centralize the administration of the country. In the activities of these bodies, work with documents was born, which was called writ of office work.

Orders were in charge of administration, tax collection and court. With the complication of the tasks of the state apparatus, the number of orders grew. By the time of the transformations carried out by Peter I, there were more than 50 of them.

Of interest is the structure of the state authority itself - the order:

LIFTING

MEDIUM HANDS

YOUNG

The procedure for compiling the document in the order was as follows: at the direction of the clerk, the draft document - the “black letter” - was drawn up by the clerk of the “middle hand”, the clerk by his “black”, i.e. corrected, and the young clerk "whitewashed", i.e. wrote cleanly. The white paper was checked against the draft, the “old” clerk “corrected” the rewritten document, certifying with his signature that it corresponded to the correct draft. "Corrected" documents were signed by clerks. The signature was stretched across the entire width of the document in order to protect against forgery. Orders could rightly be called the cradle of bureaucracy: documents often went through many instances, lingering unnecessarily with individual executors for a long time before reaching their destination.

We also inherited the word "red tape" from the office work. Documents glued into columns 50–80 m long on average were wound on sticks into scrolls. The tapes were dragged when reading, hence the concept was born. Bribery and servility prospered in the office of the clerk's office work. Office operations, such as registration of documents, storage, control over execution, were also not developed. And yet it was at this historical stage that the first system of working with documents was formed, the basic techniques and methods for creating, designing and processing them were laid.

Thus, during this period, management did not constitute a coherent system and was built on a system of "orders" - any range of affairs was transferred to the jurisdiction of a certain person according to the degree of closeness and trust of the Grand Duke to him.

1.3 The system of collegiate office work

Instead of the outdated system of orders in 1717 - 1718. 12 colleges were created, each of which was in charge of a certain industry or area of ​​​​government and was subordinate to the Senate. The structure of the boards was finally determined by the General Regulations of the State Boards, signed by Peter I on February 27, 1720. This document details the functions of each division of the board. Including there is a chapter on the structure and functions of the office, as well as a chapter on the secretarial rank. High and strict demands were placed on the secretary.

Thus, the General Regulations of the State Colleges actually created an office and approved the post of secretary. February 27, 1720 can be considered the date of birth of the secretarial position in Russia. In addition to the secretary, the office included: registrars, actuaries, archivists, coneists, scribes, fiskoms. The General Regulations clearly define the rights, duties, limits of competence and even the mode of operation of clerical workers.

During the period of collegiate office work, the foundations for organizing accounting and storing documents were laid, at the same time the name “archive” appeared for the first time. In the General Regulations, it was prescribed to have two archives - common for all collegiums in the special jurisdiction of the collegium of foreign affairs and financial. Developing separate clerical operations for working with documents, collegiate office work left its bureaucratic essence unchanged. Thus, the 18th century in the development of office work was characterized by the strengthening of the legislative regulation of all aspects of the activities of the office and the institution as a whole, the formation and consolidation of the general administrative principles of the activities of institutions, and above all, the bureaucratic principle.

2. Office work in Russia in the XIX - XX centuries.

2.1 The system of ministerial office work XIX - early XX centuries.

Early 19th century was marked by a new reform of public administration and office work, which affected mainly the upper level of government - higher and central institutions, and together with the reforms of Catherine II in the last quarter of the 18th century. completed the formation of a system of central and local institutions.

The new management system - ministerial, based on the principle of unity of command, was born in the depths of the old collegiate system: in the boards of the late 18th century. presidents had wider rights than before. The creation of ministries with single-handedly managing ministers was necessary for a more flexible and operational management system. The collegial principle of decision-making was not excluded from the new system at all: first, collegiums were introduced into the newly created ministries; later, under the ministers, councils were created that had the status of a collegial advisory body. Nevertheless, the attitude towards the ministers as the sole executors of the will of the tsar determined the office work of the ministries as executive.

The first ministries created by the manifesto of September 8, 1802 were: naval forces, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education, justice and, as a ministry, the State Treasury. Each minister was instructed to create an office and have a comrade (assistant). Simultaneously with the ministries in 1802, the Committee of Ministers was established - the highest administrative institution, which acted on a collegiate basis and considered cases that were beyond the competence of an individual minister and required a joint agreed decision. Somewhat later, on January 1, 1810, the State Council was created - the highest legislative institution. At the same time, the reform of the Senate was carried out, which becomes the highest judicial authority, also performing the function of overseeing the government apparatus.

Finally, the sole ministerial beginning won only with the publication on January 28, 1811 of the "General Institution of Ministries" - a legislative act that determined the entire system of the ministerial structure, including their office work and the system of relationships with other institutions and persons. In accordance with this act, the number of ministries increased and there were some changes in the redistribution of affairs between them.

The ministers were appointed by the emperor himself and were responsible only to him. The principle of unity of command is the basis of the entire organization of ministries: the directors who headed the departments reported directly to the minister, the heads of departments - to the directors of departments, the head clerks - to the heads of departments. The Council of Ministers consisted of the heads of the main departments and had the significance of a body "for the consideration of cases requiring, by the importance of their general consideration." In departments, the role of councils was performed by the general presence of departments. The minister's office was similar in structure and acted as a department; the chancelleries of the departments had a simpler internal structure: they were headed by the ruler of the office and had a staff of officials - a journalist, executor, treasurer, scribes, etc., their official and quantitative composition depended on the volume and content of cases. For example, if the departments were in charge of financial resources, the office included accounting departments or tables with the corresponding staff of employees.

The “General Establishment of Ministries” introduced uniformity into the system of office work of ministries: from the creation of documents to their archival storage. A special place is given to the order of "relationships" (correspondence) of ministries with other institutions.

The content of the “General Institution of Ministries” indicates that its authors quite clearly distinguished two aspects of office work: the forms of documents on which office work is carried out (an independent term was widely used to refer to this activity in the 19th century - writing), and the movement of documents and affairs (“the order of the course of affairs”), realizing at the same time that in the practical activities of the office they closely interact. The basis of this interaction is nothing else than the procedure adopted in the institution for considering and resolving cases, or “case proceedings” (using modern terminology, the process of making managerial decisions).

Cases sent to the ministry could go to the minister's office or directly to the departments. The minister's office received decrees and orders from the supreme authority, the correspondence of the minister with other ministers and chief executives, governors and, in general, persons of equal rank. Submissions from subordinate bodies were sent to the Minister in case of extreme importance or urgency. He received responses to his instructions and complaints about decisions of departments, as well as secret cases.

Correspondence with other institutions and persons of equal status and subordinates, submissions from subordinate institutions, orders of the minister and cases from his office with a resolution of the minister came directly to the departments.

All cases received by the ministry were divided into three categories: current cases (cases received on a general basis in accordance with the established procedure) - reports, statements, submissions, correspondence, etc .; emergency cases - their solution required the adoption of new decisions, or cases of detected abuses; cases, "timeless", or urgent. Extraordinary and urgent matters were dealt with first.

The director of his office reported to the minister on the cases received, and the director of affairs of the office of the department reported to the director of the department. This stage was, in fact, a preliminary consideration of the case and did not entail any decisions, but determined the further course of the paper in the ministry. The general procedure for the movement of affairs in the ministries was strictly regulated, and a rare case could avoid the fate of going through the entire path of its preparation and consideration - from a separate desk within a particular department, through the director of the department, and often the general presence of the department or the combined presence of several departments (in case of extreme complexity of the case) to the minister, and sometimes the council of the minister, depending on the complexity of the case. This also applied to cases that came to the name of the minister and were decided by his authority. In addition, the "college" procedure for compiling documents initially prevailed in ministerial office work, in which the consideration of each issue required the repetition "word for word" of all previous documents. At the same time, things reached enormous proportions. Over time (approximately by the middle of the 19th century), a new procedure for presenting the case in the form of a brief note developed - a presentation of only the very essence of the issue. All this turned the document flow of institutions into a complex hierarchically organized process, long in time, given that the main tools of the office were pen and paper, and the only registration system was a journal. The author of the famous "Guide to a visual study of the administrative flow of papers in Russia" (1856) M.N. Katkov names 54 clerical operations when considering a case in the Provincial Board, 34 - in the department of the ministry, 36 - in the Committee of Ministers.

Documents created in the process of “case production” can be divided into two groups:

Documents that constituted the internal office work of the institution (notes, certificates, extracts, meeting journals, registration journals, table registers, etc.);

Documents received by the institution from other institutions and sent to other institutions, including "executive papers".

Since in the last quarter of the XVIII century. If a “hierarchy of authorities and places” was formed, which determined the system of “relationships” between institutions of various types, then the ministerial clerical work had no choice but to “fit” into this system, which happened. The ministries received from higher institutions: from the emperor - decrees, orders; from the State Council - the highest approved opinions; from the Senate - Senate decrees; from the Committee of Ministers - extracts from the journals of the meetings. The ministers sent the highest reports (to the emperor), opinions, proposals, and submissions to higher authorities. Ministries exchanged with equal institutions through relations, messages, official letters. Orders of ministers were sent to subordinate places and persons, reports, reports, presentations were received from them. Thus, the system of ministerial office work complemented the one that had developed at the end of the 18th century. documentation system of local institutions.

An independent stage of “case production” was “sending cases”, which included registration of sent documents in journals and direct sending (sealing in a bag, writing an address, etc.). Until the middle of the 19th century, when postal envelopes and stamps appeared in Russia, the law provided that all outgoing papers should be sent in the form of packages - the document was folded in the form of an envelope and sealed with a wax seal.

Separate journals existed for the registration of documents sent to higher institutions and subordinate places and persons. The peculiarity of the latter was that they provided for the recording of information (on the execution of the sent paper), which each office was obliged to report with special reports. In essence, this information was used to control the execution of documents, since the case was not considered completed until a report was received on execution or on the impossibility of executing the decision for any reason.

The audit of affairs - the verification of the conduct of affairs - according to the "General Establishment of Ministries" constituted an independent section of office work. The revision of cases was a function of the heads of departments, directors of departments; in the provinces - the heads of government offices and the governor himself. The heads of the departments checked the execution of documents on the tables and reported the information to the director of the department, who was instructed to check the executed and unfulfilled documents every month according to the registration logs and table registers and submit statements about this to the minister. Based on these statements, at the end of each year, the office compiled a general statement for all departments and the office of the ministry. The audit of cases included checking the order of storage of documents and cases, the correctness of the headings of cases, the timing of the consideration of cases, the reasons for the delay in the consideration of cases.

The last stage of the "proceedings" of the "General Establishment of Ministries" are reports. The law established three types of reports:

Reports in amounts;

Case reports;

Reports in "views and assumptions".

Reports in amounts were financial reports, reports in cases were reports on activities, the last reports were presented; work plans for the next year. The reports were prepared by the departments, each in their own direction, and then summarized in the departments. On the basis of the reports of the departments, the director of the office compiled consolidated reports for the ministry.

Serious changes in the management system, a corresponding restructuring of the system for documenting the activities of new institutions led to changes in the form of the document. Forms of institutions with a corner arrangement of details appear in the office work of ministries. Forms were printed in a typographical way or written by hand. The details of the form include the name of the institution, the names of structural divisions, reflecting the place of the division - the author in the structure of the institution (department, department, desk). The date of the document is also included in the details of the form, as well as the registration index of the document. The title to the text of the document occupies its separate place, located directly under the details of the form (almost the same as in modern documents). A link to the incoming document also appears (a prototype of the modern requisite "Link to the date and number of the incoming document"), which does not yet have a unified form and may look different: "Answer to No. ..." or: "From such and such" etc.

Acquires a stable form and props "Address", which appeared in the XVIII century. in collegiate office work, this is an indication of the position of a person in the dative case or the name of the office. Receives a certain form of document certification: signatures and braces on the document include the title of the position of the person who signed or fastened the document and his personal signature.

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. legislative regulation of office work of higher, central and local institutions is carried out. Thanks to the system of codification of legislation adopted at that time in the Codes of Laws of the Russian Empire, it is quite easy to obtain detailed information about the legislative regulation of office work at institutions of any level. Codes of laws begin to be published from 1832. Then, replenished with new legalizations, they are republished in 1842, 1857 and subsequent years. The first two volumes of the Codes contain legalizations concerning the supreme power, the activities of higher, central and local (provincial, county) institutions, including their office work.

A feature of the organization of office work in this period was not only its clear legislative regulation, but also the appearance of a fairly extensive office literature, including works of a theoretical nature. Of great importance during this period were scribes - collections of sample documents. The first such collections appear already in the second half of the 18th century, and from the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. are published regularly. More than a hundred such collections are known, published before 1917.

The purpose of publishing collections of sample documents is to give a complete guide to the procedure for doing business in government offices with a description of the “rite of office work” and the application of document forms. Such collections were intended for the widest range of officials and individuals who have to apply to state institutions.

Against the background of the extensive clerical literature of this period, the works of N.V. Varadinov are of completely independent importance - “Office work, or a theoretical and practical guide to civil and criminal, collegial and one-man writing, to the compilation of all government and private business papers and to the conduct of the cases themselves” (St. Petersburg, 1857) and its reprints with a slightly changed title in 1873 and 1887.

Office work N.V. Varadinov divided into theoretical and practical. In a theoretical sense, it is “a science that sets out the rules for compiling business papers, acts and the cases themselves”; practical office work is "the general procedure for the production of cases in public places according to the forms given by laws and according to the established images of business papers." He attributed to the subject of theoretical paperwork: the "external properties" of business papers and their "internal" properties.

In the section on the external properties of documents, he gives: a classification of business papers in terms of external form:

1) intercourse (or relationship);

2) registers, journals, protocols, statements, inventories, reports, books;

3) official letters;

4) notes;

5) extracts;

6) the procedure for writing the text of the document in various business papers;

7) parts of business paper (i.e. the form of the document): title, special notes, location of the circumstances of the case, signature, paper clip, blank inscriptions, “cover” inscriptions;

8) titles and formulas for addressing various persons and other issues.

To the internal properties, he refers the style ("syllable") of documents, the features of writing (spelling) adopted in business papers.

In the practical section of N.V. Varadinov are extremely valuable: the classification of documents proposed by him (clerical files and papers, relations between government offices and "petition" files and papers), a detailed description of each type of document and samples of specific documents for each type, which make up more than half of his voluminous work.

Despite the significant changes that the system of ministerial office work has undergone, especially in the initial period of its formation, by the end of the 19th century. life demanded more flexible forms of office work and its acceleration. For rapidly changing social relations, the system of ministerial office work continued to be cumbersome and clumsy, despite the fact that in the last third of the 19th century. first, in the office work of the military department, and then in civilian ministries and institutions, typewriters begin to be used. Their appearance was a truly revolutionary step in documenting the activities of institutions. It accelerated all the written work of the office, made it possible to simultaneously produce several copies of documents, significantly reducing the amount of handwritten work. Moreover, typewritten text has become more compact, reducing the volume of documents.

The advent of the telegraph brought to life a new type of correspondence - telegrams, which very quickly became mass documents; The invention of the telephone led to the appearance of telephone messages - a written record of a message transmitted by telephone.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. Increasing attention is being paid to the registration system, to the need to simplify it through its centralization. This idea fundamentally contradicted the idea laid down in the "General Establishment of Ministries", in accordance with which many document registration points were created in the institution.

A lot of work to simplify office work was carried out in individual departments, in particular the military, where in 1911 the “Regulations on writing and office work in the military department” introduced a system of simplified office work. The regulation simplified the technique of correspondence, reduced the number of office documents. Three types of documents were established for written relationships between officials of the military department - a report, an order, and an attitude. The cases of exchanging telegraph messages were regulated, clear meanings were established for inscriptions that restricted access to documents: “secret”, “not subject to disclosure”, “hurriedly”, etc. The regulation established the procedure for using typewriters for making documents, hectographs for copying and other technical devices , accelerating the paperwork processing of documents.

However, the work to improve office work in the military department, due to the outbreak of the First World War, was not borrowed by other ministries and departments of tsarist Russia, and the socio-political upheaval that took place in 1917 - first the February bourgeois-democratic, then the October socialist revolution led to the complete demolition of the state apparatus and the creation of a new one, which, although it adopted many old traditions, was born on fundamentally new foundations.

2.2 Rationalization of management and office work in 1917 - 1941

The ideas of scientists about the history of the formation and development of management institutions, office work until October 1917 have a long tradition and have developed into a fairly clear and coherent system of knowledge. The Soviet period, on the other hand, needs a rethinking of facts, events, concepts, given the ambiguity in the interpretation of many issues in the development of managerial thought, the scientific organization of labor and office work during this period.

The October Revolution of 1917, aimed at radically demolishing the old state apparatus, at involving the broad working masses in its activities, radically changed the form of the state apparatus. The All-Russian Congress of Soviets became the highest body of state power. In the period between its congresses, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was elected - the executive branch. For the direct administration of the country, the first Soviet government, the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom), was formed. The first 13 People's Commissariats (People's Commissariats) were created by the decision of the Congress to manage individual branches of state administration.

The composition of the new apparatus was fundamentally different from the old one: workers, soldiers, etc., who did not have a special education, were recruited to work in Soviet institutions. The level of documentation management has decreased. At the same time, many tsarist officials remained in their places, sabotaging the new government. It was necessary to legislate the activities of power structures, to streamline the processes of documentation. On October 30, 1917, the Council of People's Commissars issues a decree "On the procedure for approving and publishing laws." For the execution of administrative documents, a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of March 2, 1918 "On the form of forms of state institutions" was adopted, which listed the mandatory details of the form of documents. During the formation of the Soviet state apparatus, much attention was paid to the simplification and rationalization of office work. So, on December 8, 1918, the Council of Workers' and Peasants' Defense issued a resolution "On the accurate and prompt execution of orders from the central government and the elimination of clerical red tape."

When rationalizing the management technology, the experience of predecessors was used. For example, when creating the “Regulations on Writing and Paperwork”, a document of the military department of 1911, similar in name and content, was taken as the basis. in order to save it, etc.). When assessing this period, one must take into account the difficult conditions of the Civil War, the devastation. Class battles did not contribute to the stabilization and streamlining of the apparatus, and a long and stubborn struggle against bureaucracy did not lead, and could not lead, to tangible positive results. However, during the 1920s can be considered the most beneficial in terms of:

Organization of research in the field of management, scientific organization of labor (NOT) and office work;

The most important normative and methodological documents that have been published in the field of documentary support for management (DOE);

Work practices of departments, institutions, organizations in documenting the management activities of "general office work" and special documentation systems.

Socio-political and scientific life of Russia in the 20s. replete with contradictions. On the one hand, the suppression of the activities of prominent scientists, on the other hand, the active and successful work of theorists and practitioners of management (Gastev A.K., Kerzhentsev P.M., Bogdanov A.A., Vitke N.A., Vyzov L.A., Drezen E.K. , Burdyansky I.M. and others), the existence of several completely independent schools of managerial thought. For example, the schools of the major researcher of NOT and management Gastev A.K. (Head of the Central Institute of Labor), who put forward an original and meaningful concept of labor attitudes. The direction headed by Kerzhentsev P.M. (the founder in 1923 and the head of the largest public organization in the country - the League "Time", later renamed the League "NOT" - 1924). Kerzhentsev P.M. made in his research an important conclusion about the transfer of the universal organizational principles of the activities of objects from one sphere to another. He wrote: "... to some extent use military experience in industry or use the organizational methods of industry in cultural work, etc." A significant circle of scientists was united by the school of E.F. Rozmirovich. Its representatives mainly worked at the Institute of Management Technology (ITU) under the People's Commissariat of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspection of the USSR, the director of which was E.F. Rozmirovich herself. The development of managerial thought - the "production interpretation" of managerial processes is presented in the literature by L.A. Byzov, E.K. Drezen, E.F. Rozmirovich. and others. The initial methodological premise of their theoretical constructions and practical rationalization activities was the statement about the presence of common features in production and management processes. Despite a certain limitation of the functional-technical approach to the study of management, the authors of this concept were able to effectively solve many "local" management issues from its standpoint: rationalization of structures; improving documentation of execution, planning and accounting; rationalization of technology and techniques of management procedures and operations. The Institute issued recommendations for improving office work in the management apparatus.

Organizational and scientific activity on optimization in the field of management was secured by regulatory documents and the creation of a whole network of public organizations, institutes and laboratories involved in the issues of NOT and office work. So, in 1922, under the general administration of the NK RKI of the USSR, a normalization department was created, consisting of five sections. In the clerical section, they were engaged in improving the structure of clerical services in the party and state apparatus, rationalizing the control of execution, developing reasonable performance standards for certain categories of managerial workers. On the basis of the normalization department, in July 1923, the Section of Administrative Technology was organized, which continued and expanded the areas of research of its predecessor (survey of the state apparatus using timing, questioning; consultations on improving the activities of "grassroots" government bodies, methodological assistance, etc.).

In December 1923, the Council for the Scientific Organization of Labour, Production and Management (SovNOT) was formed to coordinate work on NOT throughout the country. According to the Regulations on the Council, approved on December 26, 1923, it became a permanent advisory body under the collegium of the NK RCT of the USSR and was called upon to develop the basic principles of administration techniques and the scientific organization of management, in particular its documentation support. The council also dealt with the rationalization of machinery and production technology.

In the mid 20s. in addition, two new large organizations are created: on January 1, 1925, Orgstroy, and in February 1926, the State Institute of Control Engineering (ITU). Both organizations worked in constant and close contact. Moreover, the activities of Orgstroy were predominantly applied in nature (development of samples of office furniture, equipment, office equipment), while ITU paid more attention to theoretical research in the field of management.

The most interesting and promising development of office work problems was carried out at ITU in the following main areas:

Document flow of institutions and methods of its optimization;

Ways of registration of documents, the choice of rational methods of accounting for documentation;

Document execution control;

Storage of documents.

In terms of the system and directions of inspection of objects, ITU practically did not differ from foreign consulting and implementation firms and from organizations that work in this area at the present stage. As a result of a detailed survey of institutions, a project was created for the reorganization of general office work, consisting of two main parts. The first contained a brief description of the current state of affairs in the organization; in the second, concrete ways were outlined for reorganizing and improving office work. The description of office work was carried out in accordance with the stages of document processing: receiving, registering, marking correspondence, courier communication, execution and control, sending documentation.

The project of the “new office management system” of the ITU outlined the following general principles for optimizing the activities of the surveyed objects:

The organization of office work should be the same for the entire institution;

Registration of documents should be single and carried out in the most simplified form; refusal, where possible, of registration;

The number of instances through which each document passes is reduced to a minimum;

Reference work is provided with the least expenditure of energy and time;

Control over the execution of documents should be a substantive check, not be of a formal nature;

Supervision, guidance and responsibility for setting records management is assigned to a certain person.

After the presentation of the general principles, specific recommendations were given to improve office work for the surveyed object. The ITU and the Central Archive of the RSFSR prepared the "Rules for setting up the archival part of office work in state, professional and cooperative institutions and enterprises of the RSFSR", published in 1928. They gave recommendations on compiling lists of categories and cases circulating in institutions, and rules for their destruction (for documents expired).

An important stage in the development of office work problems can be considered the draft “General Rules for Documentation and Workflow” prepared by the ITU (published in 1931). It accumulates advanced practical experience accumulated by this time by various departments and organizations, summarizes the research of domestic and foreign scientists. It was supposed to introduce the "General Rules" as standard and uniform for all institutions. The main executive body for the implementation of all office operations, according to the authors, was to become the secretariat. The "Rules" determined the functions of the employees of the secretariat, their duties and the content of the work. The presentation of the material in the "Rules" can be compared with the content of modern training instructions for computer programs. For example, the procedure for processing correspondence was described in detail and the methodology for performing each operation was indicated. Unfortunately, the "Rules" were not finalized based on feedback from institutions and were not finally approved. ITU was liquidated in April 1932.

With all the variety of types and forms of documents actually circulating in Soviet institutions, the flows of documentation continued to be disordered in form and content. In this regard, by the end of the 1920s the problem of their unification and standardization arose sharply. The ITU organized a special structural unit that dealt with these issues at the all-Union level - the Cabinet of Standardization. He developed standards for official letters, telegrams, telephone messages, protocols, notices, etc.

The materials used in office work (paper, ink, typewriter ribbons, etc.) were standardized; means and items of office work, including office furniture. The activities of the Cabinet on the standardization of paper formats were successful (in particular, the experience of Germany was used).

In the 20s. systems of special documentation also developed. Given the complete dominance of the concept of building socialism, emphasis was placed on documenting such functions as planning, accounting, control. In February 1921, the State General Planning Commission (Gosplan of the RSFSR) was formed, which solved the problem of developing a general economic plan, taking into account the long-term and current development of industries and individual enterprises.

Statistical documentation is an important and effective tool in farm management. Already in July 1918, central (CSO) and local statistical bodies were formed, which conducted surveys on the state and prospects for the development of the Soviet economy. At that time, intensive work was underway on the organization of current industrial statistics, the form of periodic reporting on special forms. In December 1926, the first All-Union population census was carried out. Personal, family and household forms were used as a documentary basis. Statistical documentation was uniform in form and included indicators.

Accounting documentation, reflecting and fixing the movement of financial resources, by virtue of its specificity, should be unified to a greater extent than other systems. This problem was mainly solved by the researchers. When rationalizing bulky arrays of accounting documentation, the experience of tsarist Russia and Western European countries was widely used. The correct organization of accounting at all levels of management, the improvement of accounting forms of documentation - these are the topical issues of the development of accounting and its documentation in the period under review.

In the 30s. a rigid, centralized administrative-command management system is being formed and strengthened, which excludes the possibility of considering alternative approaches to the organization of state office work. As a result, the structures involved in research on the issues of NOT and office work are collapsing; practically all major research and development centers are being liquidated, and their leaders, at best, end their lives in complete oblivion, at worst, they are repressed. The atmosphere of this period was most clearly manifested in the social orders of the authorities to science - in particular, efforts were directed at the "enslavement" of the country's population by legal means. For these purposes, for example, the system of registration of Soviet citizens was improved.

The Constitution of 1936 significantly changed the political system, hierarchy and powers of the highest authorities. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR became the highest and only legislative body; the Congress of Soviets of the USSR, the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and its Presidium, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR lost such rights. A rigid system of authority was established in the publication of certain types of documents for each hierarchical structure. These innovations have simplified and streamlined the processes of documentation in the highest echelons of power.

The absence of a single methodological center for coordinating the work of institutions in the field of management and office work, the disparity in the activities of departments and organizations in matters of documentation, put on the agenda the problem of concentration of scientific forces on a nationwide scale and their organizational design. In 1941, the First intersectoral conference on office equipment is going. The draft program put forward by the participants of the meeting broadly reflects the following issues of documentary support for management:

Creation of an organizational and methodological center to manage the organization of office work;

Development of a regulatory framework for the activities of office work services;

Mechanization of labor of "clerical" workers;

Carrying out the unification and stencilling of management documentation;

Establishment of a unified system of training and retraining of office workers;

Establishment of an all-Union scientific research institute for the development of a set of problems of documentation support.

However, the outbreak of the Great Patriotic War prevented the practical implementation of the proposed program.

2.3 Management and record keeping in 1945-1990s

The difficult state of the economy destroyed by the war and the problems of restoring the national economy after the end of the war pushed the issues of documentary support of management into the background. Increasing interest in the development of problems of rationalization of technology and control techniques can be attributed to the beginning of the 60s.

The assertion of some researchers regarding the qualitative increase in the level of developments in this area compared to the period of the 20s. seems to be of little evidence and is only partly true for studies on the problems of management and documentation of management, conducted in the 70s. The negative assessment is based primarily on a comparison of the achievements of world science and practice in the management and development of information technologies in this area. The lag of our country was especially acute and visible in the 80-90s, when theoretical developments in the field of cybernetics, mathematical methods of control, informatics and technical element base led to a wide informatization of the socio-political and economic life of the industrially developed countries of the West, the introduction of into the real management activities of new technologies, to the development of the concept of "paperless office". This does not detract from the achievements of domestic science in the field of management, NOT, document management, in the development of a set of theoretical and applied problems - the creation of a system of standards for documentation, the Unified State Documentation System (EGSD), all-Union classifiers, unified documentation systems, improvement of special documentation systems, recommendations of the Research Institute of Labor on the regulation and optimization of the activities of managerial workers.

In June 1960, the All-Union Conference on the mechanization of labor of engineering and technical workers and employees of the administrative and managerial apparatus was held in Moscow. The decisions made in their content largely coincided with the recommendations of the 1941 meeting - the urgency of creating a specialized institute with the task of developing a Unified Office Management System was confirmed, the concept of NOT was formulated and the main areas of research were outlined. Undoubtedly, the decisions of this meeting have intensified the work of scientists and management practitioners. A certain milestone in the development of issues of working with documents was the “Exemplary Instruction on Office Work for Institutions and Organizations of the RSFSR”, approved by the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR, in which the main emphasis is on the unification of office work. During this period, the influence of the Main Archive Directorate (GAU) under the Council of Ministers of the USSR increased. Since 1958, the GAU has been authorized to control the setting of the documentary part of the office work of institutions, organizations and enterprises. In 1963, the State Agrarian University issued the “Basic Rules for Organizing the Documentary Part of Office Work and the Work of Archives of Institutions, Organizations, and Enterprises of the USSR,” which for many years served as a guide for documentation and archive services and contributed to the streamlining of their activities.

On the long and thorny path of preparing the State Documentation Management System, the first legally important stage was the adoption on July 25, 1963 of the USSR Council of Ministers Resolution “On Measures to Improve Archiving in the USSR”. The Main Archive Department and a number of state committees and institutions were entrusted with the development of the USSD. The first real result of this work can be considered the preparation in 1965 of "Materials for the Unified State Record Keeping System". In 1966, the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Documentation and Archiving (VNIIDAD) was established within the framework of the Archival Service, which was instructed to complete the development of this document. In 1967, VNIIDAD developed only a methodological research program. In 1970, a draft of the main provisions of the USSD was created, in the preparation of which the Scientific Research Institute of Labor, All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Technical Engineering, the Institute of State and Law of the USSR Academy of Sciences, All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Standardization took part. After discussion and refinement in September 1973, the “Basic Provisions of the Unified State Social Security Council” was approved by the State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR for Science and Technology and recommended them to ministries, departments and organizations for use, but only as provisions that do not have an official status. The authors of the USSD summarized the best practices of their time and proposed the optimal technology for performing management operations and documenting them. The EGSD was of a complex nature, i.e. included not only issues of office work, but also recommendations on the scientific organization of the work of employees, the structure of office services and their technical equipment. The implementation of its provisions has improved the overall culture of management and the quality of decisions made, and has made it possible to optimize the structure and staffing of the administrative apparatus. However, the elements of new information technologies, partially implemented in the practice of leading foreign firms, were not presented in the USSD due to the complete lack of literature on these issues and funding for their practical study. This gap was partly filled later by the creation of a new edition of the State Documentation Management System (GSDOU), approved by the head of the Main Archive Department in 1988.

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The first educational systems were formed back in antiquity (VI-V centuries BC). Roman, Athenian, Spartan schools are known, differing among themselves in the methods and content of education, as well as its goals. Almost all philosophers of antiquity considered the development of good, positive character traits, law-abidingness, respect for elders, mentors, as well as the suppression of bad inclinations in the emerging personality, as the main task of education. It is these postulates of pedagogical science that have passed the test of time from the era of antiquity to the present day.

The emergence of preschool pedagogy as a science dates back to the century when the Czech teacher JAN AMOS KOMENSKY (1592-1670) created the first system of preschool education. He outlined progressive ideas about the development and upbringing of the child:

Pointed out the need to take into account the age and individual characteristics of children;

Developed age periodization, including four age periods: childhood, adolescence, youth, manhood. Each period, covering six years, corresponds to a certain scale. For children from birth to age 6, a "mother's school" is intended;

He put forward the idea of ​​natural education;

The manual "The Visible World in Pictures" created by him marked the beginning of a visual acquaintance of children with objects and phenomena of life around them;

Substantiated the need for widespread use of visual methods in educational work with children;

He considered the development of the sense organs, speech and ideas about the environment to be an important task in educating children up to 6 years of age;

He proposed a knowledge program that prepared the child for systematic schooling, which contained the rudiments of knowledge from all fields of science. Knowledge and skills were arranged according to the principle of sequential transition from simple to complex, from easy to difficult;

The Swiss teacher HEINRICH PESTALOZZI (1746-1827) attached great importance to preschool education:

He considered the formation of the moral character of the child to be the main task of education, rejecting moral teachings as a means of moral education, sought to develop in children love, first of all, for the mother, then for peers and adults, to instill a sense of duty, justice through exercise and moral deeds;

He put forward the idea of ​​combining productive labor with training;

He developed the idea of ​​elementary education, according to which all knowledge is based on the basic elements: form, number and counting. Initial training should be based on these elements;

He paid great attention to the development of tasks, content and methods of preschool education of a child in the family;

In mental education, he put forward the development of thinking, mental abilities, streamlining of ideas in the first place;

He created the "Book of Mothers", where he wrote that the mother, as the main educator, should develop the child's physical strength from an early age, instill in him labor skills, lead him to knowledge of the world around him, and cultivate love for people.

In the second half of the 19th century, the German teacher FRIEDRICH FROEBEL (1782-1852) created a system for raising young children, which was of great importance for the development of the theory and practice of preschool education throughout the world. In his opinion, at the heart of everything that exists is God, a single divine principle, and a person is a small creature that carries a particle of a deity in itself. The purpose of a person is to reveal the divine principle inherent in him. Education should contribute to the creative self-disclosure of the personality and the instincts and abilities inherent in the child, and not determine them. Frobel considered the game to be the basis for educating a child in kindergarten, through which the divine principle inherent in the child is revealed, considered the game as one of the means of moral education, believing that in collective and individual games, imitating adults, the child is established in the rules and norms of moral behavior. For the development of the child at an early age, he proposed six "gifts". The use of this manual helps the development of building skills in children and at the same time creates in them ideas about the shape, size, spatial relationships, numbers. The disadvantage of these gifts is a far-fetched symbolic justification, dryness, abstractness. The great merit of the German teacher was the variety of types of children's activities and activities he introduced: this is work with gifts-building material, outdoor games, modeling, paper weaving, etc.

ROBERT OWEN (1771-1858) - English philosopher and teacher, created a school for small children - from one to six years old, which included a nursery, a kindergarten and a playground. Here the children learned to sing and dance, spent a lot of time outdoors. Particular attention was paid to physical education, gymnastics, and games. Great importance was attached to the education of children in the spirit of collectivism. The children were explained in detail the rules of collective communication, they were told that they should not offend their comrades, but respect them and help them when necessary. There was no systematic teaching of writing and reading in this school; children were taught to read and write in the process of conversations about nature, about surrounding objects and phenomena. Much attention was paid to aesthetic education, musical and rhythmic studies.

Owen was the first to substantiate and implement the idea of ​​social education of children from the first years of their life and created the world's first preschool institution for the children of the proletariat. In his educational institutions, mental and physical education was given, children were brought up in the spirit of collectivism, they were instilled with work skills, taking into account their interests and using games and entertainment as the most important educational factor in working with them.

MARIA MONTESSORI (1870-1952) - Italian teacher, theorist of preschool education, in the book "Children's Home. The Method of Scientific Pedagogy" outlined her system of preschool education. Her progressive ideas:

First introduced monthly anthropometric measurements;

In order to provide children with conditions for free independent activity, she made a reform in the usual equipment of the building and rooms of the kindergarten: desks were replaced with light furniture, according to the height of the children, hygienic and labor equipment was introduced;

Having defined a passive role for the educator and assigning the function of activity to her did.material, Montessori, at the same time, demanded that educators be armed with the method of observation, developing in them an interest in the manifestations of children;

Along with the main form of raising and educating children - self-study - she suggested using the developed form - an individual lesson, building it on pedagogically rational principles (conciseness, simplicity, objectivity).

Created didactic material aimed at exercises of tactile-muscular sense.

There are also negative aspects in Montessori theory:

Strictly distinguish between work and play and did not use the game in the learning process;

She did not attach positive importance to children's creative play, which makes her theory one-sided, and the pedagogical process does not satisfy the natural needs of young children;

She excluded from her theory consideration of the development of coherent children's speech, familiarizing children with the artistic creativity of the people, literary works;

She believed that from 3 to 6 years of age is not the acquisition of knowledge, but a period of formal exercise of all aspects of mental activity, which are stimulated by the sensory sphere.

The contribution of Russian teachers to the development of preschool pedagogy.

In Kievan Rus, the upbringing of children of all ages was carried out mainly in the family. The purpose of education was to prepare children for work, the fulfillment of basic social roles. Religious education was of great importance. The factors of folk pedagogical culture (rhymes, rhymes, tongue twisters, riddles, fairy tales, folk games, etc.) acted as the main means of influence. All these means of pedagogy were transmitted orally. In connection with the baptism of Russia, the church occupied a significant place in the upbringing of the younger generation. Such means appeared as performing rites, memorizing prayers, etc. In the 11th century. in Russia, the first popular schools were opened, in which children from the upper classes were trained. The twelfth century is dated "Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh to his children." Vladimir Monomakh wrote instructions for his children, but many of the instructions are of a general pedagogical nature. In 1572, the first Russian textbook "ABC" by Ivan Fedorov was published. Around the same time, the collection Domostroy was published. It outlined the main directions of family education and behavior in family life.

At the beginning of the XVIII century. there was a rapid development and change in Russia under the influence of the reforms carried out by Peter I. One of the areas of reform is education. Preschool education at that time did not stand out as independent, but was carried out under the influence of general pedagogical branches. Pedagogical ideas were expressed and published by the best representatives of that time. In 1832, a small experimental school for young children was opened at the Gatchina Orphanage. They were there all day - eating, drinking, kids playing games, mostly in the air; the elders were taught to read, write, count and sing. A significant place in the daily routine was given to stories and conversations. The school did not last long, but it showed the success of such activities with preschool children.

KD USHINSKY (1824 - 1870) - the founder of Russian, in particular, preschool pedagogy. His idea of ​​national education is the most important in pedagogical theory. He believed that it was necessary to create a system of public education that meets the needs and interests of the people (education of patriotism, national pride, love of work; knowledge of folk culture, native language, works of oral folk art). He created an original theory of children's play, confirming it with scientific and psychological data (play is a free, independent activity; its content is influenced by the environment; the teacher should not interfere; toys are of great importance; it is important to use folk games). He recognized the closest connection between the aesthetic and moral education of preschoolers. The "Native Word" presents stories, poems, articles that are simple in presentation, easy to understand, which are a valuable tool for the mental, moral and aesthetic education of children. His thoughts on improving the educational work of kindergartens are interesting:

No need to overwork children with "sedentary activities", give more free time for independent activities;

Premature learning tires the child's brain, instills self-doubt;

The delay in learning causes a lag in the development of children;

He considered it necessary to develop: educational activities for children "preceding book learning"; non-curricular activities that are adjacent to children's play.

These provisions helped to more accurately determine the content and methodology of the educational work of the kindergarten, to establish lines of communication and continuity between the work of the kindergarten and the school. KD Ushinsky singled out the requirements for the personality of a children's "gardener". He attached great importance to the family, noted the enormous role of parents in the development and upbringing of the child's personality.

AS SIMONOVICH (1840 - 1933) considered the kindergarten as a preparatory stage for schooling. She put forward the idea of ​​creating an elementary class in the kindergarten for children from 6 to 7 years old. Determined the purpose and purpose of the kindergarten, sought to establish the general and special tasks of the kindergarten and elementary school, based on the psychological characteristics of children of preschool and primary school age. She noted that the relationship of the teacher with the children in kindergarten should be built on the model of family relations.

EN VODOVOZOVA (1844 - 1923) was the first in preschool pedagogy to fully reveal the problems of mental and moral education of preschool children, starting from an early age. She put the idea of ​​national education as the basis of her system of family and public education of preschool children. She attached great importance to the physical education of children and labor education as one of the aspects of moral education, etc.

P.F. LESGAFT (1837 - 1909) - a scientist and teacher - proved that the development of the body is influenced by the environment and exercises, considered it necessary for educators and parents to study children in the process of everyday life and educational work. In his book "Family Education of the Child and Its Significance" he outlined the scientific foundations of family education of children; put forward the main requirements for the organization of education in the family, wrote about the inadmissibility of corporal punishment of children, about the importance of the role of play and toys in raising children. He created an original theory of physical education, according to which he put motional exercises, the ability to consciously control individual movements, to overcome obstacles with the greatest possible dexterity and the least expenditure of energy, in the first place in the anatomical and physiological improvement of the body of children. He considered physical education an important means of comprehensive development of the personality, closely related to mental, moral and aesthetic education.

LNTOLSTOY (1828 - 1910) - in his pedagogical theory, the idea of ​​free education occupied the most important place. He believed that a person has the right to freely form his beliefs and views, without any violence and coercion on the part of society, and that children are inherent in natural perfection and high moral qualities - for the first time in the history of pedagogy, he paid special attention to the problems of educating preschool children. It is pointless to educate a child, since the consciousness of a moral ideal is stronger in children than in adults. Adults should only give material so that they can develop. He idealized the nature of children. In his teaching, he denied the purposeful educational impact on children. He was a supporter of family education, the main condition is a healthy family way of life (consistency of parents, mutual respect, a unified approach), the need to cultivate love and the habit of work. The upbringing of children should be aimed at the harmonious development of strengths and abilities, opposed corporal punishment in family education. He is the creator of educational books "ABC", "Book for reading"

State budget educational institution

Higher professional education of the city of Moscow

"Moscow City Pedagogical University"

Institute of Pedagogy and Psychology of Education

Department of Management of Preschool Education

Boriskin

Pedagogical conditions for modeling environmental education

in a preschool educational institution

COURSE WORK

Direction of training - 050100.62 Pedagogical education

Course of study - 2

Form of education - part-time

scientific adviser: Kulakova

teacher Svetlana Alexandrovna

Moscow 2013

I slightly corrected the plan, as for the content of the text itself, it seems to me that the theoretical part is too capacious, it should be shortened. Everything else can be left, but program content can be added (analysis of programs by environmental content).

Introduction

Relevance. In the modern world, a rather complicated ecological situation has developed. Man in the process of life destroys the environment, and this negative impact on nature grows as the power supply and population increase. Obviously, the life and health of present and future generations depend on the preservation of the environment.

Today, the scientific and technological revolution has posed a number of new, very complex problems for humanity, which it has either not faced at all before, or they were not so large-scale. Among them, the relationship between man and the environment occupies a special place.

The interaction of man and society presupposes knowledge and observance of at least a minimum of ecological culture. Until recently, its formation was carried out mainly spontaneously, fixed in the public consciousness and practical activities of people through a system of customs and traditions, in assessments and decisions corresponding to the level of social development and people's understanding of possible environmental dangers.

It is obvious that such a way has completely exhausted itself and a conscious, purposeful formation of an ecological culture is required. This is impossible without a proper formulation of the entire educational process, an increase in the role of environmental education in it. it is the basis for the education of ecological culture, and the formation of ecological culture must begin from an early age.

Fragmentary environmental education of preschoolers has been going on for a long time, in this course work we have set goal to study the dynamics of views on the environmental education of preschoolers and analyze the features of the environmental education of children in a modern preschool educational institution.

Purpose of the study:

Object of study: ecological education of preschoolers.

Subject of study: features of environmental education of preschoolers in modern preschool educational institutions.

Research objectives:

1. Consider the features of the organization of environmental education in a preschool educational institution.

2. To study the program content of environmental education for preschoolers.

3. Analyze the structural and functional model of environmental education of a modern preschool educational institution.

The structure of the course work:. consists of introduction, two chapters, conclusion, bibliography and appendices.

Chapter I. Theoretical study of the historical formation of environmental education of preschoolers

The history of the development of environmental education in preschool pedagogy

At the origins of the domestic methodology of teaching natural science was V.F. Zuev, academician, professor of teachers' seminary. He was the founder of Russian theoretical and practical natural education, as well as the author of the first textbook "Inscription of Natural History". The material in the textbook was distributed in parts, from inanimate to living nature: "Fossil Kingdom", "Vegetable Kingdom", "Animal Kingdom", which favorably distinguished it from other textbooks of that time. Fresh scientifically reliable factual material presented in a lively, accessible language contributed to the formation of children's interest in nature. In the textbook, man was not alienated from nature and was placed among animals, and not singled out in a special category. As a methodologist, V.F. Zuev was a supporter of the study of natural objects of nature. Based on the ideas of Jan Amos Comenius, he insisted on objectivity and visibility in teaching, recommended teaching through live interviews, demanded not to be limited to the framework of the textbook, but to make excursions into nature. The positive features of his pedagogical teaching are noted by the famous methodologist B.E. Raikov: “Long before Pestalozzi, the Russian methodologist was quite clear about the advantage of vivid, objective visualization over “graphic” visualization.

Thus, V.F. Zuev made a serious attempt to solve a number of methodological problems: the relationship between scientificity and accessibility, determining the place of natural and graphic visualization in teaching, and organizing the practical orientation of natural education. This stage in the development of natural science methodology is called practical. On the modern significance of V.F. Zueva in the environmental education of preschoolers is evidenced by the fact that at present, in the selection of content for various programs to familiarize children with nature in a preschool educational institution, his recommendations are used, for example, the sequence of studying the world.

By the beginning of the 19th century, the descriptive-systematic direction intensified in the natural sciences, which for a long time established itself in the domestic methodology of natural science. The development of this trend was due to the fact that the ideas of taxonomy of the Swedish botanist K. Linnaeus, described in his System of Nature, were gaining more and more popularity. But progressive ideas found a negative reflection in the methodology of teaching natural science - the memorization of dry taxonomy led to the decline of natural education in Russia.

It should also be noted that during this period of time the development of biological educational knowledge went in parallel with the development of biology as a science. It received its name in 1802, when the term "biology" in its modern interpretation was proposed by the French naturalist Jean Baptiste Lamarck. The formation of biological education took place under the influence of the methodology of scientific knowledge developed by F. Bacon, who called nature the source of knowledge of patterns.

The next stage in the development of biological science was outlined by the middle of the 19th century, when industry began to actively develop in Russia. This time was marked by the rise of progressive sentiments in public life and the increased interest not only in the development of the natural sciences, but also in the problem of natural science education.

During this period of time, new ways and means of preschool education were formed under the influence of the ideas of revolutionary-democratic pedagogy, standing on the position of educative education (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev, N. .G. Chernyshevsky). On the one hand, the emphasis was on studying the characteristics of the development of preschool children. On the other hand, Russian enlighteners opposed the formal study of nature. In their pedagogical views, they proceeded from the fact that knowledge of natural laws will allow not only to form the moral qualities of a person, but also to regulate human behavior in nature.

The development of new pedagogical ideas and theories in the middle of the 19th century was associated with the criticism of serf education and the advancement of demands for the organization of a mass public school, for the development of teaching methods and public preschool education.

So, Russian enlighteners, materialist philosophers N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev, N.G. Chernyshevsky, continuing the traditions of B.G. Belinsky and A.G. Herzen, actively fought for the creation of public education. ON THE. Dobrolyubov and N.G. Chernyshevsky believed that the development of children should begin from the early years of life, since the period of childhood is important in the formation of a person's personality. Opposing narrow pragmatism, a utilitarian attitude to nature, they contributed to the development of the learning process, one of which they considered the formation of realistic ideas about nature. D.N. Pisarev in his writings also actively promoted natural science, which he considered the most important means of education.

The development of preschool education in the second half of the 19th century was associated with the abolition of serfdom, after which there was an upsurge in the development of science and philosophy in Russia. Successes in the development of natural science at this stage are associated with the names of I.I. Mechnikov, K.F. Ruler, I.M. Sechenov and others.

New scientific discoveries have had a significant impact on the methodology of teaching natural science. The founder of the doctrine of the evolution of the organic world K.F. Roulier criticized the dominance of systematics in education and considered all natural phenomena in dynamics. He called for an understanding of nature as a whole, for the study of the complex relationship of the organism with the environment. Even before the appearance of the term "ecology", he emphasized that the further development of science education would be based on a biological (ecological) approach.

At the same time, Russian natural scientists A.N. Beketov, V.V. Dokuchaev, K.A. Timiryazev and others, finding support in the theory of Charles Darwin on the evolution of the organic world, the discoveries of G. Mendel in genetics, L. Pasteur in microbiology, opposed dogmatic teaching, a descriptive approach in natural science education. In their opinion, observations, independent study of nature, the inductive method and the value approach are the way that children should be introduced to nature.

Thus, in the second half of the 19th century, the most prominent progressive scientists, teachers and methodologists made serious attempts to show the importance of studying nature in the development of the child's personality in particular and social consciousness in general.

The pedagogical ideas of that time found the greatest expression in the works of the great Russian teacher, the founder of pedagogical science in Russia, K.D. Ushinsky. In the scientific pedagogical system he developed, special importance was attached to the upbringing of children during preschool childhood, the most important stage in the general system of upbringing and education.

Much attention to K.D. Ushinsky devoted in his scientific works to "impressions of nature that educate the soul." The methodology he developed for introducing children to nature still provides rich material for the development of kindergarten didactics. It is based on observations received by children in the process of playing and exercising in nature. The words of K.D. Ushinsky: "The logic of nature is the most accessible and most useful logic for children." He determined the requirements for the selection of material about nature, for the sequence of acquaintance with the outside world. His book "Native Word" included natural-scientific material reflecting the development of science of that time, and determined the content of knowledge about nature. In substantiating the principle of visualization and developing a method of observation, he constantly drew attention to the close ties of children with nature, the importance of their acquaintance with the surrounding natural world. He wrote about nature as "one of the most powerful agents of human education."

The depth of the scientific approach of K.D. Ushinsky can be assessed by the implementation of the principle of conformity to nature in his methodological works in several directions: a deep understanding of the nature of the child himself; in bringing the content and organization of the pedagogical process closer to nature; in the support of education on folk traditions and customs.

Further development of the ideas of K.D. Ushinsky about the development of the child in the process of familiarization with the natural environment was continued by the founder of the national methodology of natural science A.Ya. Gerd. The scientist highly appreciated the importance of knowledge about nature, both in the means of shaping the worldview of children, and in educating love and developing interest in it. In his methodical works A.Ya. Gerd attached great importance to visibility: he developed a methodology for conducting observations. He believed that children should study natural subjects in their natural setting, as this awakens an interest in nature: "The teaching of natural science should, if possible, begin in the garden, in the forest, in the field, in the swamp." In his pedagogical works A.Ya. Gerd defended the provisions developed by pedagogy since the time of Pestalozzi: any knowledge should not be imposed on children, they should follow as natural conclusions from observations, comparisons and experiments. Fully agreeing with K.F. Rulier, he attached great importance to excursions, believing that only here it is possible to consider an animal in connection with its entire environment, a plant in connection with the soil on which it grows.

Thus, A.Ya. Gerd came close to solving many modern problems of environmental education. The ecological approach he developed was built on the methodology of children studying plants and animals in their "mutual relations, in connection with their adaptability to living conditions."

Such a transformation of the content of natural science further contributed to the formation of a new scientific direction within the framework of biological science - ecology.

For the first time, the term "ecology" appeared in 1866, when Ernest Haeckel in his work "General Morphology of Organisms" gave it the following definition: "By ecology we mean the general science of the relationship of living organisms to the environment ...". In 1869, Haeckel adds a new task to the definition of science: "it explores ... the relationship of living organisms with each other." The etymology of the term "ecology" is formed from the fusion of two Greek words: "oikos" (house, dwelling, dwelling) and "logos" (science, study). Thus, the literal translation of the concept "ecology" means the science of the house.

Thus, when the science of relationships of various types in wildlife (organisms among themselves and with the environment) began to take shape as an independent branch of knowledge, a new scientific direction appeared in biological science - ecology.

This scientific trend contributed to the emergence in school science (first in Germany, and then in Russia) of a section that reflects the environmental component of biological education. As a result, it was during this period of time that the beginnings of its innovative component, environmental education, were formed in school biological education.

As a result, a number of ecological concepts appear, built on the natural scientific understanding of the interaction between society and nature. Among them, a new direction stands out - Russian cosmism. Cosmist philosophers N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, B.C. Solovyov and others argued that "the nature of the Earth is part of cosmic harmony, and man and nature constitute an" essential unity ", therefore partnerships should be built on the basis of the laws of morality." Contradictions between Mind and Nature are natural, but Mind is responsible for finding a way to resolve them. This philosophical thought in the conditions of modern society is of particular relevance for solving the problem of environmental education in general and environmental education of preschoolers in particular.

It should also be noted that the idea of ​​conformity to nature can be traced in the literary heritage of L.N. Tolstoy. In the versatile work of the great Russian writer-thinker, there were many aspects that enriched pedagogical thought. He took an active part in solving the problem of education and upbringing of young children. Always emphasizing the pedagogical value of strengthening the humane feelings of children by means of nature, he was a representative of the philosophical direction, the so-called "folk ethics", which found its continuation in the ideas of "universal environmental ethics".

So, L.N. Tolstoy saw in the natural environment the ideal conditions for the manifestation of human nature, and, consequently, the conditions for the education and development of the child. Following Rousseau, he believed that "childhood is the prototype of harmony," therefore, raising a child in the "bosom of nature" makes it possible to reveal everything that is inherent in him by nature. The natural labor cycle of human interaction with nature was for him the ideal way of life, consistent with the establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth. In his opinion, a sense of harmony with the world is given only to a child, and an educator will help to preserve it, which contributes to the manifestation of moral beauty through the beauty of nature.

These ideas of L.N. Tolstoy are relevant at the present stage of development of environmental education of preschoolers, as they are focused on the formation of their modern environmental consciousness, the attributes of which are: the inherent value of any form of life; the presence in nature of internal connections; the relationship of man and nature, within which man is a part of it and bears responsibility in relation to it.

The ideas of Russian cosmism were also shared by Academician V.I. Vernandsky, who consistently advocated the implementation of the traditions and principles of natural science humanism. Developing his doctrine of the biosphere, he wrote that the biosphere is "the nature that surrounds us, about which we speak in colloquial language. Man - first of all - with his breath, the manifestation of his functions, is inextricably linked with this" nature "at least he lived in the city or in a solitary house."

Further development of ideas about environmental education in preschool childhood is associated with the emergence of a new science - preschool pedagogy.

The pedagogical ideas of Friedrich Fröbel, a German theoretical teacher who created a special type of preschool institution - kindergartens, had a great influence on its formation.

In these institutions, a special system of games and activities was organized, strictly corresponding to the age characteristics of children, using didactic material - "Frebel gifts". F. Frebel believed that the upbringing of a child should take place in close connection with nature. In his work "Kindergarten" he wrote about the expediency of teaching children not only observations, but also practical activities, for example, growing plants on their own. At the same time, Fröbel noted the beneficial influence of nature on the education and upbringing of those "who early open their heart and mind to her." The main emphasis in education was placed on the development of mental activity and familiarization with the natural environment. Acquaintance with nature was carried out during the games through the formation of relationships: "child and forest", "child and tree".

The pedagogical ideas of scientists of the second half of the 19th century served as a powerful stimulus for the development of a national system of preschool education in Russia. Already in the 60s of the XIX century, the first kindergartens appeared, represented by "family groups", "folk kindergartens" as charitable ones.

Thus, with the advent of preschool pedagogy as a special branch of the science of knowledge, the methodological ideas of natural scientists about the need to develop the environmental component in biological education are subject to development in line with preschool pedagogy, within which the issue of environmental education of preschoolers receives scientific justification. At the same time, the poor development of the content, methods, and forms of preschool education hindered the development of methods for familiarizing children with nature.

An important role in the further development of preschool environmental education in general and the methodology of environmental education of preschoolers in particular was played by the scientific and pedagogical system of the teacher-naturalist E.N. Vodovozova. Developing the ideas of his teacher, the outstanding Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky, she for the first time most fully revealed the problems of mental, moral, aesthetic education of preschoolers by means of nature. E.N. Vodovozova wrote: "If a child of preschool age does not understand the external signs of surrounding objects, he cannot be observant, nature with its various phenomena will be alien to his heart, and at the same time a huge field of knowledge will be inaccessible to him." But, in her opinion, the importance of nature in shaping the child's personality is not limited to this. Natural objects also serve "to awaken observation, attention and interest in nature." In his book "From Russian Life and Nature" E.N. Vodovozova directly pointed out: "If you open the great book of nature in front of a child and guide him, then he will become attached to the world around him with all his soul."

Thus, E.N. Vodovozova for the first time made an attempt to scientifically substantiate and disclose the methodology of observations, taking into account the age characteristics of preschoolers, during which the child "learns to get ideas about each observed object of nature" on the basis of active methods of education: walks, excursions, setting up experiments, independent work on caring for plants and animals. In this regard, E.N. Vodovozova emphasizes: "Pay your pet's attention to the brilliance of the sun, the beauty of the sky, do not ignore a tree, a bush, a flower, or a fluttering butterfly."

By the beginning of the 20th century, there was a steady trend towards the development of the system of preschool education in Russia. In connection with urbanization, there have been significant changes in the very name of the educational institution for preschool children. So, if Froebel called them "kindergartens" (a garden is a natural formation), then in Russia they began to be called "children's houses" (a house is a city attribute). There was also a significant increase in the quantitative indicators of preschool educational institutions. As a result, the total number of paid kindergartens reached 250, public - 30.

The emerging trend towards the development of preschool education in Russia largely predetermined the further development of the methodology of environmental education in general, as well as the methodology of environmental education of preschoolers in particular. It is necessary to emphasize that it was during this period of time that the scientific foundations of private methods, including natural science, were laid.

As part of the biological approach to preschool education, the upbringing of a careful attitude of preschoolers to nature and the dominance of their practical skills for the active development of nature have received significant development. During this period of time, the first methodological journal on preschool education appeared - "Kindergarten". A separate part of the scientific and methodological publications presented in this journal was aimed at further solving the problem of environmental education of preschoolers. The founder of the magazine was a well-known figure in preschool education - teacher-methodologist A.S. Simonovich. The methodological basis was the ideas of K.D. Ushinsky, and the main principle was the native-vedic one: familiarization with the nature of one’s region, reading stories to children from the life of their native nature, etc.

In the early years of the formation of Soviet power in Russia, the method of observation dominated in the methodology of preschool education when considering issues of familiarizing children with nature. The provision was actively developed that it was necessary to "bring nature closer to the child": to create conditions in kindergartens for familiarizing children with animals and plants (aquariums, terrariums, flower beds, etc.), to use the method of observation in nature more.

This position was first announced at the First All-Russian Congress on Preschool Education. In the same year, the first program document for educators and parents appeared: "Instructions for maintaining a hearth and a kindergarten", that is, methodological recommendations were published for the first time. They pointed out that communication with nature is one of the important tasks of education, and provided for the creation of a special natural environment in kindergarten (aquariums, terrariums, etc.). The recommended forms of environmental education for preschoolers were self-care of preschoolers for animals, growing plants, etc., and the choice of activities was free, and the participation of children in them was voluntary.

It should be noted that in the 1920s, two didactic directions clearly emerged in the system of preschool education in Russia. The first direction was associated with the implementation of the didactic principles of F. Frebel ("Frebel direction") and with the innovative views of the Italian teacher Maria Montessori. In the practical activities of kindergartens working in this direction, a large number of didactic materials dominated when introducing children to nature.

So, for example, Maria Montessori solved pedagogical problems on the basis of the proclamation of the principle of "freedom". Like Rousseau, she believed that education contributes to the development of the child's strength. The system of didactic material developed by her for self-education of the child was mainly aimed at psychological and sensory development and closed cognition in a narrow framework. In this regard, it is valuable for our research in Montessori's experience that she assigned nature a leading role in sensory education, recognizing its huge influence on the development of a child's curiosity, a humane attitude towards the world around him. Of the most important forms of a child's activity in nature, she singled out observations and work to care for living objects. It should also be noted that the ideas of free education and self-development, popular in those years in the West, and attempts to solve educational problems in an educational way, also had a great influence on the methodology of preschool education.

The influence of foreign experience on the development of preschool education in Russia was expressed in the rejection of curricula, on the one hand, and in the orientation of kindergartens towards creating conditions for self-education and self-education of children, on the other hand.

The representative of the second, opposite direction was the Soviet teacher-methodologist E.I. Tikheev. Based on the pedagogical heritage of Ya.A. Comenius, I.G. Pestalozzi, J.J. Rousseau, she developed the ideas of E.N. Vodovozova, having developed a didactic system for educating preschool children through conducting training sessions, where the main teaching method was the use of didactic material and a system of didactic games. E.I. Tikheeva, criticizing the Montessori system popular in those years, considered it artificial and, in addressing the issue of familiarizing children with nature, offered her own method of familiarizing children with the outside world. Emphasizing the great educational significance of nature, she pointed out the need to "implement the main requirement of Rousseau - to educate children in nature" - and clarified: "Children's feelings should be developed, if possible, by communicating with living objects of wildlife, on the basis of everything that life itself puts forward in its natural course."

E. I. Tikheeva believed that in the perception of nature, a preschooler should be active, he can get more complete impressions if all the senses participate in this, this will provide material for games and observations.

Thus, following K.D. Ushinsky, she attached great importance to the surrounding natural world for the development of children's powers of observation. It should be emphasized that many of the pedagogical ideas of E.I. Tiheeva play a significant role in the formation and development of the methodology of modern environmental education of preschoolers, namely: the methodology of conducting conversations, excursions into nature, the use of visualization in teaching: "If you want to give children an idea of ​​​​the forest - first of all, take the children to the forest, provide them the opportunity to see the forest in all its beauty and diversity with your own eyes."

E.I. Tiheeva for the first time in her writings proved the need to create a corner of wildlife, since a child of this age "is attracted to the animal world, in the person of its closest, familiar representatives. Thus, children imperceptibly acquire a number of certain knowledge and ideas about nature." Requirements for the maintenance of a corner of nature, developed by E.I. Tiheeva, are relevant today. She also attached great importance to the selection of knowledge about nature for schoolchildren. To the positive features of the pedagogical methodology of E.I. Tiheeva is the development of the principle of conformity to nature. "Children should be educated, taught, raised among nature and through nature" - this idea is truly ecological.

OK. Schlegel in her "Guidelines" also emphasized the implementation of the idea of ​​natural conformity in the process of environmental education of preschoolers. She considered nature to be one of the fundamental factors in the development of a preschool child. OK. Schlegel developed methods for conducting excursions, options for selecting the content of various knowledge about nature, establishing connections and relationships within it, which essentially meant the implementation of an ecological approach to educating preschool children.

Decisions of the All-Russian congresses on preschool education had a certain positive impact on the further development of preschool education in general and its environmental component in particular. Thus, the positive outcome of the Second All-Russian Congress on Preschool Education, held in 1921, was the definition of forms and methods of natural history work that bring the child closer to nature through excursions and walks; work of children in the garden; animal care; observation of nature. Thus, the leading method of cultivating love for nature has become a method involving "the study of the environment through systematic exercises of external senses."

A positive result of the 3rd (1924) and 4th (1928) congresses on preschool education can be considered a comprehensive consideration of the tasks of the content and methods of familiarizing preschoolers with nature, as well as determining the leading organizational form for familiarizing children with nature, which was the organization of a special lesson.

At the same time, it must be stated that in determining the specific goals and forms of educational work with preschoolers to get acquainted with nature, an anthropocentric approach was traced. The acquired knowledge itself was not only unsystematic, but also devoid of ecological orientation. On the one hand, they were supposed to "promote the development of love for the native nature", and on the other hand, "to form practical skills to influence nature in the interests of people."

Only by 1934, the amount of knowledge about nature, certain skills in caring for animals and plants were defined in the corresponding policy document ("The program and the internal routine of the kindergarten").

In 1938, the Methodological Guide for Kindergarten Teachers appeared, in which one of the seven sections was devoted to acquaintance with nature. A significant drawback of this manual is that the task of caring for nature was of a declarative nature.

In the program for preschool education in 1938, little attention was also paid to familiarizing children with the surrounding nature.

Thus, the emerging negative trend towards a return to anthropocentrism was due to the fact that in the early 30s of the XX century there was an active industrialization of the country and a consumerist, indifferent attitude to nature could not but affect the process of educating preschoolers.

It is no coincidence that L.I. Ponomareva, in her research devoted to the analysis of domestic methods of familiarizing children with nature, notes that the program documents of this period considered a person separately from nature. The educational process was based on the formation of ideas about how a person uses nature, and not the idea that a person (along with animals and plants) is part of nature. Thus, this provision made it impossible for preschoolers to study nature on the basis of the principle of nature-centrism, which provides for the unity of man and nature, awareness of the role of nature in human life.

Modern pedagogues-researchers (A.V. Zaporozhets, A.M. Leushina, V.I. Loginova, N.N. Podyakov, P.G. educational work in a preschool educational institution, which means that there was no concept of environmental education. Several reasons led to this. For example, the denial of educational programs. So, L.K. Schleger argued: "Since we want to create a child's life, then we have to talk about the program of life, and not about the program of knowledge."

Further development of the issue of familiarizing children with nature in the first half of the 20th century is associated with the appearance of curricula and teaching aids after the decisions of the All-Russian Congresses on Preschool Education, where the main focus was shifted to the content, forms, methods of familiarizing children with nature (through observations, excursions, etc.). e.)

Pedagogical theory was born in the views on the process of upbringing, education and development of a person by outstanding scientists, educators of the Ancient East, China, Egypt, Greece, in Russia.

ancient greek philosopher Socrates(470-399 BC) - one of the founders of the knowledge of the truth with the help of leading questions. To this day, this technique has come under the name "Socratic method" or "heuristic conversation." In these conversations, Socrates sought to awaken in his listeners the desire for morality. The Socratic method of knowing the truth becomes the beginning of wisdom.

Contemporary of Socrates Democritus(c. 460-370 BC) expressed ideas about the nature of the upbringing and development of children. In the process of learning, he preferred the development of the child's thinking, curiosity through a variety of exercises, especially in labor. “Good people become more from exercise than from nature,” Democritus taught.

Outstanding thinker of ancient Greece Plato(427-348 BC) in his numerous works outlined the pedagogical system of education and upbringing of citizens. Plato proposed the following organization of education:

From 3 to 6 years old, children gather for joint games under the guidance of women;

From 6 to 12 years old, children learn to read, write, count, sing, play musical instruments in public schools;

From 12 to 16 years old, young men study at the palestra - a school where the main attention is paid to comprehensive physical development;

From the age of 16, such subjects as arithmetic, astronomy, geometry become the focus of attention, which contributes to military training;

From 18 to 20 years old, young men receive special military-physical training.

Plato also suggested some methods of working with students. For example: “Do not forcefully teach, my dear, children of science, but through the game; then you will better see who is inclined to what.

Plato's student philosopher Aristotle(384-322 BC) developed his theory of education of freeborn citizens. Education, according to Aristotle, is a single process that has three sides: physical education, moral and mental.

Aristotle made the first attempt in the history of pedagogical thought to give an age periodization of upbringing and education. He identified three periods of age development:

From birth to 7 years;

From 7 years to the onset of puberty (14 years);

From 14 years old to 21 years old.

It was Aristotle who paid serious attention to the upbringing of preschool children and especially to play activities. Aristotle saw in education a means of strengthening the state system, it should be "the concern of the state, and not of private initiative."

Just like Aristotle, Roman orator and educator Quintilian(42–18) paid much attention to preschool education. He considered play as an important means of education. At the age of six, the child must begin to learn, but learning should be interesting for him, so as not to turn him away from this important occupation.

The pedagogical activity of the teacher-humanist of the Renaissance, the Italian professor of the University of Padua, gained great fame. Vittorino da Feltre. He organized his own school, called the "House of Joy". The school was in close proximity to nature. In this school, great attention was paid to the comprehensive development of children.

In the history of pedagogical thought, the leading place rightfully belongs to the Czech teacher Jan Amos Comenius(1592–1670). He substantiated the theory of education and upbringing as a system of scientific knowledge. He believed that a person, as part of nature, should develop according to the laws of nature. Comenius developed age periodization, highlighting four periods in the development of a child, each of which should have its own school.

The work of Ya.A. Comenius "Great Didactics". For the development of preschool pedagogy, his work "Mother's School" plays an important role. It reveals the goals and objectives of raising a child from birth to school.

Comenius determined what a child should learn in the first six years. So, in essence, there was a program of knowledge and skills that children should acquire in the first six years. The book also describes the methods of raising children. The last chapter is titled "How Parents Should Prepare Their Children for School." The content of this chapter has not lost its relevance today. Comenius passionately loved children and constantly emphasized the need for a respectful attitude towards the child.

A special place in the history of pedagogical thought is occupied by the works of the famous philosopher and writer of the 18th century. Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712–1778). According to Rousseau's theory, it is necessary to educate a child in a natural way, to follow the natural course of his development. And for this it is necessary to carefully study the child, his age and individual characteristics. He demanded to take into account the interests of the child, not to suppress his freedom. Adult guidance in raising a child, Rousseau emphasized, should be thoughtful, tactful and subtle.

Rousseau identified three sources of education: nature, people and surrounding things.

Teacher-practitioner, theorist and publicist I.G. Pestalozzi(1746–1827) enriched pedagogical thought with a number of discoveries.

It was he who expressed the idea of ​​developing education, which would give food to all human organs: “The eye wants to look, the ear wants to hear, the leg wants to walk and the hand wants to grab. But the heart also wants to believe and love. The mind wants to think."

He understood natural conformity as "a set of certain inclinations that distinguish a person from all other creatures on Earth ...". In his writings, Pestalozzi paid special attention to the role of the mother. He believed that the mother's love for the baby is the basis of his calmness, love and trust, and from these feelings the first sprouts of morality and religiosity develop.

A prominent place among the pedagogical ideas of the past is occupied by the ideas Robert Owen(1771–1858). In 1816, he created an educational institution in which children from one to 10 years old were brought up. Moreover, children from one to five years old were brought up in a children's school, where there were two departments. In fact, it was an institution for preschool children. Education in a children's school consisted in expanding the child's ideas about the environment, in developing a sense of camaraderie. A lot of time was devoted to children's games, gymnastics, dancing, singing.

In the preschool department of R. Owen's school, physical education was carried out, which was accompanied by outdoor walks, excursions, and gymnastics. He outlined his thoughts on the organization of education in the book "Experiments on the Formation of Character". A huge influence on the development of pedagogical theory and practice in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. and for all subsequent years had pedagogical activity K.D. Ushinsky(1824–1870).

K.D. Ushinsky is credited with posing and developing many of the most important issues of pedagogical theory and practice. K.D. Ushinsky substantiates in his works the idea of ​​nationality in education. Nationality, which determines education, he emphasized, includes, first of all, the language of the people, history, traditions, folklore.

Considering the language as the most important component of the nationality, Ushinsky developed the doctrine of the native language. He considered his native language to be "the greatest mentor of the people." He insisted on teaching children their native language and created for this the book "Native Word", which has already been reprinted 150 times.

Didactics occupies an important place in Ushinsky's pedagogical system. He built his didactic teaching on a psychological basis, trying to bridge the gap between teaching and raising children. At the same time, he emphasized that education is only a means of education, therefore it should be of an educational nature. For the first time in pedagogy, he substantiates the principle - educative learning.

K.D. Ushinsky is the founder of the substantiation of the psychological foundations of education and upbringing, the analysis of which he outlined in his fundamental work "Man as an Object of Education".

He constantly stressed the importance of play in a child's life. In particular, a remarkable teacher wrote: “In real life, a child is nothing more than a child, a creature that does not yet have any independence, blindly and carelessly carried away by the course of life; in the game, the child, already a maturing person, tries his hand and independently manages his own creations.

It can be said that there are no special works on the development of preschool pedagogy in the years we characterize, but in each work of representatives of the emerging pedagogy as a science, special attention is paid to preschool children, to the role of the mother in education, some methods of working with children are proposed, certain principles of education are substantiated and learning.

Kindergartens in Russia

The first kindergarten in Russia was opened in 1859 in Helsingfors. Then a kindergarten appeared in St. Petersburg, later kindergartens began to open in Moscow, Nikolaev, Odessa, Smolensk, Irkutsk and other cities. They were opened by private individuals, were paid and intended for children of the privileged classes. For the children of workers, kindergartens were opened at the expense of charity.

The experience of work of orphanages appeared in Moscow, and then in St. Petersburg in 1763 on the initiative and under the guidance of a well-known figure in education I.I. Betsky.

These foster homes housed children from birth to 18 years of age. Until the age of 2, the children lived in the village with the nurses, and later they entered the foster home. In working with children, much attention was paid to physical education.

Often kindergartens included elementary school. Programs in each case were compiled by their own. Kindergarten-school E.P. Smidovich was in a good room, was well equipped, especially with materials for children's construction.

In kindergarten groups, at the request of parents, children were taught to read, write, and count. In the warm season, many classes with children were held outdoors. The level of development of kindergarten children was higher than that of children who did not attend kindergarten. His experience about raising children E.P. Smidovich outlined in the book "Kindergarten", which was published in 1907.

In the early 1870s a book appeared E.N. Vodovozova(1844–1923) "Mental and moral development of children from the first manifestation of consciousness to school age." This is one of the most serious studies on early childhood education.

E.N. Vodovozova considered it necessary to provide a comprehensive upbringing of children - physical, moral and mental - in their relationship and spoke about preparing children for school.

A well-known contribution to preschool education was made by a remarkable teacher of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. P.F. Kapterev. He considered the kindergarten the first step in the public education of children.

Kapterev suggested accepting children from the age of 4 to kindergarten, as he believed that three-year-old children still do not speak, are physically very weak, and need constant maternal care.

Kapterev made high demands on teachers and educators. They had to have great knowledge, have an interest in nature, sing, tell, speak clearly and clearly, be able to observe children. In addition, Kapterev believed that teachers and educators should know anatomy, physiology, hygiene, psychology and pedagogy of childhood, cultural history, and children's literature.

An important role in the development of public preschool education in Russia was played by a wonderful teacher, theorist and practitioner S.T. Shatsky(1878–1934).

His teaching activity began in 1905 with the organization of the first clubs for the children of workers. He created (together with the architect Zelenko) the Settlement Society, and later Child Labor and Recreation, one of whose activities was work with preschool children. After the revolution, S.T. Shatsky took an active part in the construction of the new school. He headed the First Experimental Station, whose task was to develop the content, forms and methods of the new school. There was a preschool department at the experimental station, whose activities were aimed at developing the content and methods of educating children in preschool institutions, at finding ways to train educators to work with children and improve their skills.

Thus, in Russia, a number of public figures, educators, researchers and practitioners have always sought to justify the education of preschoolers in special institutions for children of various age groups, and at the same time, an important place in their work is given to teachers and educators of preschool educational institutions.

Tasks for independent work

1. Describe the views on the upbringing and education of preschool children of teachers and public figures of past centuries. Give their statements on upbringing and education.

2. Expand the main content of the work of Ya.A. Comenius "Mother's School".

3. What is the pedagogical innovation of K.D. Ushinsky?

4. State the views of domestic teachers who laid the foundations of preschool education.

5. Expand the history of the opening of kindergartens in Russia.